A Lecture on the methods, techniques, characters, and history of the Commedia dell'Arte
Colombina: Arlecchino, why are you crying?
Arlecchino: Because I'm dead!
Arlecchino: Because I'm dead!
Remnants of the now mostly defunct Commedia dell’Arte are virtually everywhere in Paris. Almost every graduate student at the American University of Paris saw dozens of framed illustrations of the characters and masks hanging in the lobby of the Hotel Ibis at the Place d'Italie, during orientation week. The names of Harlequin, Arlequin and Arlecchino are ubiquitous in England, France and Italy respectively, on everything from candies to toy shops and decorating groups to hotels. Pedrolino and his incarnations of Pierrot and Pagliacci are well known, not only by name, but appearance as well. A bust of Pierrot sits in nearly one out of two French bakeries, with his white painted face (with or without a tear drop), white ruffled collar and black cap perforated with holes for lollipop sticks.
Pulcinella's image with his beaked nose and hunched back are featured in many Italian restaurants and coffee shops throughout the world. Pants are named after Pantalone (who first wore ridiculously long breeches for comic effect). The comic gags of Donald Duck, Bugs Bunny and Tom and Jerry, to name but a few are taken almost directly from the pages of the Commedia dell’Arte. Consider Pinocchio, the shape of the Great Gonzo's nose, the novel Scaramouche, Carnivale costumes, Cyrano De Bergerac, Punch and Judy, circus clowns and much more. All of these are influenced greatly by Italy's Commedia dell’Arte which flourished during the 17th and 18th centuries. Yet, despite this, people today (even dedicated actors) generally seem very confused about exactly what the Commedia dell’Arte was.
Most people, have never even heard of the Commedia dell’Arte. Of the few who have, most possess a number of misconceptions. There is good reason for this. Commedia dell’Arte was a tradition passed on from mentor to apprentice, and at its most fundamental level it was an art of improvisation, so very few written records exist. So what, then, was the Commedia dell’Arte?
Literally translated it means the Comedy of the Professional Artists. The very name itself challenges the widely held misconceptions that Commedia dell’Arte refers to the art of Italian street theater (generally performed by amateurs surviving on donations). This distinction actually makes the study of Commedia dell’Arte possible since without taking that distinction seriously it is impossible to sort out the thousands of variations of history and evolutions of the street theater. Such street theater might be fairly called Commedia al'Improviso or Commedia al'Italiano but not Commedia dell’Arte! Accepting that the evolution of Commedia dell’Arte occurred not in streets, but in theaters, will make its evolution much more comprehensible.
Commedia dell’Arte was improvised by an ensemble of players. These players were not only comic actors, but also musicians, singers, jugglers, poets and acrobats. Their skills were woven into the fabric of the play. And each actor played what is known as a stock character, whose traits, mask and movement were well defined. Through the use of those characters, the ensemble would improvise a play. But this improvisation did not take place in front of the audience as it does in modern “improv” comedy, but behind the scenes. By the time the troupe actually performed the piece, they had already created and rehearsed it many times. The art, as they say, was in hiding the art.
Commedia dell’Arte, then, has nothing to do with scripts. Instead, it was a process of ensemble creation. That process was fixed with many rules, but no scripts. When Goldoni and Moliere attempted to preserve (nay, improve on) the genius of the great ensembles of their day by locking improvisations into scripts, the process was severely weakened. Goldoni's Servant of Two Masters and Moliere's Scapin, far from preserving the process of Commedia, actually have helped kill it. Those scripts preserve only jokes and scenarios, but no process or technique. With those scripts began the tyranny of the playwright which still reigns to this day.
To call a performance of Scapin or Servant of Two Masters a Commedia dell’Arte performance (as they almost universally are) is as true as it is to call a matchbox car a vehicle. It shares a certain resemblance, to be sure, but offers none of the benefits. Below, I will explain certain aspects of the characters and the process of ensemble improvisation.
The rules were very fixed. Not for the street performers, of course, but for the professionals, the rules were strict. Because it was comedy, endings were always happy. The star-crossed lovers sort things out in the end. The old man finds his money. The starving servants get to eat and secure a little private time together. The plays typically followed a tragicomic arch, taken just to the brink of tragedy, with tragedy always narrowly averted. No taboos were included in the performance, including cannibalism, homosexuality, murder and mockery of authority or religion. (The performances were in theaters mind, you, and largely funded by royalty—and they sought to remain that way.) These taboos, though, would often be flirted with. For example, Arlecchino might dream that Pedrolino was a roasted chicken and fantasize about eating him, but the cannibalism was only imagined. Or Capitano may be attracted to Arlecchino who is disguised as a woman, and Arlecchino may flirt in return, but no intended attraction occurred. Thus, the troupes were able to get maximum comic effect without offending the audience. An offended audience will not laugh, and it was laughter, not politics, that motivated these early professional troupes. Once again, this challenges many widely held misconceptions.
Unlike than the modern concept of acting where script is everything and character must be discovered, the process of Commedia dell’Arte relied on the principle that character was everything and script must be discovered. Those stock characters were very well known and the actors playing them, both male and female, were stars. Traveling throughout Italy in the 1700s, one could watch a variety of Commedia troupes from region to region and experience a number of talented comic actors interpret the same characters in slightly (sometimes radically) different ways without undermining the fundamental movement or traits of the characters. The process of creation and interpretation lay entirely in the hands of the actors. This can rarely, if ever, be said about plays today. In modern theater it is the playwright and the director who call the shots, which has significantly undermined the value of ensemble creation.
The creation of the script begins with a canovaccio, which translates literally as canvas, and figuratively as scenario. These canovacci could be originally created by the ensemble, or selected from a wide repertoire already in existence. Today, hundreds of canovacci are documented. (This was about the only part of the process that was in writing!) A canovaccio is an outline of a play, typically in three acts, detailing which characters are in the play and how they are interlinked; which servants belong to which masters; which lovers belong to which old men; which obstacles stood in the way of the love; which side characters would engage in selfish conflicts; in what way tragedy might be at hand; and finally, it might provide a few clues and suggestions for how a satisfactorily happy and comical ending could be reached.
From there, using their knowledge of their characters and the stock comic bits of business they had previously developed called lazzi, the actors would begin. Lazzi translates as laces, indicating perhaps, that these comic bits serve as a sort of decorative addition to the plot. A few famous lazzi are: Arlecchino is so hungry that he chases a fly hoping to eat it as though it were a chicken; Isabella is brought to madness by fear of losing her love; Pantalone finds a coin and does a cartwheel despite his age. Capitano introduces himself with a long, rambling, braggart's speech; Signora holds up her hand and Pedrolino must slap her hand with his face; or, as a lamp blows out, all characters grope around in the dark mistaking identities. Those are just a few of the nearly infinite possibilities of lazzi. The important distinction is that they are rehearsed bits of business somewhat superfluous to the scenario itself. Since the bits were rehearsed, there might be occasions where a character has to fill dead time on stage. In those cases, that actor can merely select an appropriate lazzo and begin the bit. If other characters are involved, they will know what to do. Once begun, lazzi were always carried through until completion.
Three other rules of the Commedia dell’Arte come to mind. First, an object should never dropped or thrown, unless another character is waiting nearby to catch it, because once an object leaves the hands of a performer it is beyond that performer’s control. Allowing anything in the entire performance to appear uncontrolled would ultimately be detrimental to the comedy, which requires the complete faith of the audience in the artists’ abilities to safely and precisely choreograph chaos. Secondly, all entrances and exits in Commedia dell’Arte cross (meaning that as one character or group of characters begins to exit, another begins to enter) because even one second without action would be detrimental to the comic pace, which is relentlessly fast. Just before exiting, all characters acknowledge the audience (generally with a glance and a smile) as a way of saying that they will be back. This brings us to the third rule which is that there is no sadness in Commedia dell’Arte, dramatic tension perhaps, but never sadness. Since exits can be a potentially sad thing, they are handled lightly and playfully. I once appeared in a scene where my Welsh scene-mate was a few seconds late for an entrance (having just sprinted across the backstage to emerge as another character on the opposite side). Attempting to explain his late entrance, he apologized (in character) to the audience for his lateness offering the excuse that his horse had fallen down on his way there. Then realizing that nothing is funny about a fallen horse, he abruptly added the hilarious tag “But she's all right!”
That brief anecdote makes two points about technique. The first, of course, is that there is no sadness in the Commedia dell’Arte. The second is that actors often speak directly to the audience, either by way of discourse, asides that the other characters don’t hear, or on some occasions, the masked characters will even go so far as to raise their masks on their heads and explain how difficult it can be to work under certain conditions.
And now, a few notes about characters, or masks. In Commedia dell’Arte the word maschera denotes not only the mask itself (typically crafted of leather) but also the character (including the ones who don't even wear a physical mask). The mascheri are broken into four main sets, roughly corresponding to the four seasons or basic elements. These are the Zanni, the Capitani, the Innamorati, and the Vecchi.
Each character in Commedia dell’Arte has an extensive, but restricted, repertoire of movement. I can't possibly describe all of the walks, gestures and leaps at their disposal, but I will say this: These players had a repertoire of studied movement which could accommodate virtually every imaginable situation. In terms of improvisational acting, the goal wasn't so much thinking of an idea as it was selecting one. All movement was based on an inverted pyramid concept. Walking would require very large movements with the legs lifting very high and the arms and head fully involved, but the actual resultant step would be very small. In this way, a maximum of movement could occur in a minimum of space.
The proper use of the mask was obviously studied as well, but here I will limit the methods to one simple idea. The mask covers the face, so to use the face is to use nothing. Only by using the neck, does one use the face.
Zanni (Servants)-- This name Zanni derives from a pejorative diminutive of the name Giovanni, which was apparently a common name in the northern Italian region of Bergamo where these characters are said to be from. Elementally, Zanni correspond with the earth. They have been smashed into the ground over a lifetime of poverty and servitude, have an “S” curved spine and walk low to the ground with their butts sticking out behind them and their chests protruding in front. Zanni never stand still, always shifting weight from one foot to the next, as if to rest the other foot. They are always tired and always hungry. The characters are based on the starving peasants, driven out of business after Bergamo was conquered by the economically superior city-state of Venice. These peasants apparently wandered in desperate search of masters to serve. The contradiction of the Zanni is that they possess slow minds, but agile bodies.
For the Zanni, everything is about survival. They have no time for skipping or joyfully playing practical jokes, as they are so often depicted. They fight to survive. Whatever mischief happens along the way was born out of pragmatism, not fun. The masks of Zanni (with the notable exception of Arlecchino who has a smashed in nose) feature big noses and warts. Zanni are generally capable of only one emotion at a time, and do everything in extremes. A Zanni who has just been rejected by his romantic pursuit but is also given a plate of pasta, may need to alternate between tears and ecstasy and back again. Those emotions are also contagious to other Zanni, who may begin to cry if other characters are crying, or laugh if the other characters are laughing, regardless of the reason why. Zanni often get carried away with their imaginations and find it impossible to distinguish between what is actually happening and what they are imaging might happen, hence the classic lazzo: “I'm crying because I'm dead!”
Incidentally, the word Zanni is, in fact, the derivation for the English word “zany”. Zanni are never without their slapstick or battocio, which they use for everything from a weapon to a nail file, a polenta spoon to a musical instrument. Battacio translates literally as clapper of a bell, but also carries an interesting connotation along the lines of, “his bell doesn't have a clapper in it.” Zanni can be broken into two main subsets, First and Second Zanni.
Secondo Zanni-- These characters may find themselves at the bottom of the pecking order in Commedia dell’Arte, but this class has also produced some of the most famous and enduring characters. The Second Zanni are the stupidest and most base characters but their lack of wit does not disable them. By seeing the world in such a simple manner, they often manage to succeed in preposterous ways despite the odds. While their greed and stupidity may get them into mounds of trouble, it may also help to get them out. The Second Zanni frequently find it necessary to sleep while in the middle of a task, perhaps snoring and farting alternately, and are given to constant and total lapses of memory. They are stupid, but clever, and roughly correspond to the red-nosed or Auguste circus clown. In many ways they are the Ernie to the First Zanni's Bert (to use a Sesame Street allusion).
Of the many famous second Zanni (and there were many, such as Truffaldino and Trivellino) it is the mask, costume and name of Arlecchino that is most remembered. This precise character is attributed to the 17th century Italian actor Tristano Martinelli who was looking for a name that would be funny to French audiences. He chose a name based on a mythical French creature of the woods, the Hellequin. He outfitted his costume with leaf-shaped patches, and to better facilitate acrobatics he wore black face-paint instead of a mask. Over time, Arlecchino took on a snub-nosed black mask, resembling both a demon and a monkey. Later, the character evolved into a more charming sort of numskull by the 17th century French actor Domenico Biancolelli and the mask and character began to take on more catlike traits. His costume took on the more formal diamond shaped lozenges and yellow braid with which most audiences today are familiar.
“His character is a mixture of ignorance, naivete, wit, stupidity and grace. He is both a rake and an overgrown boy with occasional gleams of intelligence, and his mistakes and clumsiness often have wayward charm. His acting is patterned on the lithe, agile grace of a young cat, and he has a superficial coarseness which makes his performances all the more amusing. He plays the role of a faithful valet, always patient, credulous, and greedy. He is eternally amorous, and is constantly in difficulties either on his own or on his master’s account. He is hurt and confronted in turn as easily as a child, and his grief is almost as comic as his joy.”
Jean-Francois Marmontel (1723-99)
One other Second Zanni which certainly deserves mention is Pulcinella, which in Italian roughly translates as “the stupid lil’ runt chick.” Pulcinella is a special case among second Zanni, having an origin which is uniquely Southern (from Naples). He is perhaps not as lovable as other Zanni, but he makes up for it with his impressive refusal to bow to authority. His nose is hooked like a chicken's beak. His costume is white (as are most Zanni’s, indicating their poor status through flour sack clothing). His voice is shrill and his back hunched. Typically, his sleeves entirely cover his hands to show his strong disdain for work. Pulcinella is a crafty and violent character who never misses an opportunity to beat someone or something with his battocio, but always gets his comeuppance in the end. In the world of Commedia dell’Arte, there is a fair and natural balance that always returns everything to its just and proper order.
Eventually, this character became very famous as Policinelle or Mr. Punch, in the puppet shows of France and England. When actors were prohibited from speaking in public performances in France to prevent anti-authoritarian speech, the puppets were not censored since they were deemed only for children. In a stroke of brilliance, the puppet shows became a hot-bed of anti-establishmentarianism, and Mr. Punch has been beating up authority figures with his battocio ever since.
Primo Zanni-- First Zanni characters roughly correspond to white face or boss clowns. He or she is the Bert to the Second Zanni's Ernie. With similar options of movement, the First Zanni stands slightly more erect than the Second Zanni. While the First Zanni is clearly smarter than the second Zanni, it is in relative terms. John Rudlin has written that the two Zanni together, might possess the intelligence of one average person, but with a 60/40 split. The first Zanni are above the second Zanni in that they have relative job security and probably even a bed, albeit one of hay in the barn. They have evolved to a level where they are able to sleep while standing up. These characters are a bit rough around the edges, but nonetheless have a strong desire to maintain their dignity and their job. They are often the linchpin of the happy ending, and despite their lack of education, they are often the only characters smart enough to actually see things for what they are. The first Zanni comes in three major types:
The first type is the archetype of the servetta, or saucy maid (soubrette in French), usually named Colombina, Smeraldina, or Franceschina (Colombine in France). Pressure comes upon her from every angle, involving Arlecchino who is in perpetual love with her, the old man who employs her and makes ridiculous demands of her (including sex), the lover with whom she sympathizes and desires to help, and her own needs as well. Outfitted in a sort of Cinderella garb (before the visit from the Fairy Godmother), she does not wear a mask, and has instead a white painted face with reddened cheeks. [This is a good time to mention that Italy was very progressive in this way, and that historically this appears to be the first time that women were allowed on stage, and in no mask at that!]
The second type is the infarinato (meaning covered in flour), usually named Pedrolino or Pagliaccio or Pierrot (this latter version from the French pantomime tradition was considerably more moonstruck and broken hearted than the formers). This character serves as a valet or houseboy, and plays much the same function as Colombina. He also did not wear a mask, opting instead for white powder. His character was effeminate and prissy, and was often best friends with his bitchy master who would not fail to beat him regularly. But, as I must always remind my students, Pedrolino was not gay, since as I've already stated, certain taboos simply did not exist in the world of Commedia dell’Arte. And, I repeat, that was for pragmatic, not moral reasons.
In addition to the “maid and valet” the First Zanni could also come in the conniving and sinister variety. In these cases, he was often named Brighella (from brigare, to fight) or Scapino or Scapin (from the Spanish escaper), later evolved into the infamous Figaro, and was often a capable singer and guitar player. This Zanni had managed to advance to the position of a moderately successful entrepreneur be it an innkeeper or coachman, his mustachioed mask was of a swarthy green color, and his white costume often boasted green braid. He was greedy and manipulative and would sell his own mother to turn a profit. Despite that, the fairness of the Commedia dell’Arte dictates that he ends up paying for his wrongdoing. Personally, I see this character as the forerunner of the Snidely Whiplash melodrama villain archetype. In the Commedia universe he may be well on his way to becoming an il Magnifico such as Pantalone.
Il Capitano (The Captain)-- In Naples, the Captain began as a characterization of real Spanish soldiers or mercenaries, often serving as a foil to Pulcinella. In the northern tradition, the Captain was more of a phony, likely a Zanni deep down, but masquerading as a war hero. It is the duty of each actor playing a Capitano to invent his own colorful name and introductory speech, one famous example was that of Capitano Spavento della Vall'Inferna, (Captain Fright of the Valley of Hell). Often, to avoid political content, the Capitani would brag of mythical battles and conquests, with no actual political affiliation. The physical stance of the Capitani is similar to that of the Zanni but with more purposeful swagger and affectation. It is the walk of Muscle Beach, but with the same spinal “S” curvature of the Zanni.
Like all characters of the Commedia dell’Arte, il Capitano is a contradiction. Whereas Zanni is a clever fool, il Capitano is the braggart coward. He will boast endlessly of his conquests with war and women, but in reality has probably never been near either. He is the first to make threats, and the first to hide under a table in the event of a loud crash or threat of a mouse. He is the excuse maker par excellence. His mask has a large and obviously phallic nose. Literally wearing his penis on his face, Capitano always carries a sword or staff, though sometimes the sword is too long to even be removed from its scabbard.
Renowned contemporary expert Antonio Fava describes il Capitano is the most tragic character of the Commedia dell’Arte because he is constantly in fear and risk of being exposed, and so he must constantly invent excuses and lies. Life terrifies this man, and he wants nothing more than to appear brave.
The female counterpart to il Capitano, is la Signora. She has a name along the lines of Rosaura, wears no mask and shares none of his cowardice. She is perhaps what Colombina could become with age and status. She is often married to one of the old men, and is the active love foil for Capitano, or occasionally, her servant Pedrolino. Her demeanor can only be described as extremely bitchy, and she indiscriminately slaps her way through a room without remorse. She treads a delicate path between attempting to secretly satisfy her lustful desires with il Capitano while avoiding detection by her rich old husband. The Zanni often find themselves caught in the middle of this mess. Signora needs no weapon save her bare hands. In fact, she often needs only to look at Pedrolino and he will slap himself!
Innamorati (Lovers)-- These characters were originally played as grotesque and flighty mockeries of lovers but were soon (thanks largely to the efforts of the great 17th century Italian actress, poet and playwright Isabella Andreini) transformed into more sincere portrayals. These characters also play without masks, typically dressing in a rich and elegant fashion appropriate to their time, and correspond seasonally to the spring and elementally to the air. While their stance is always rooted firmly to the ground, their upper body has an ethereal and light quality. Their contradiction comes from being strong but powerless, which they always are. Sometimes they find themselves powerless because their fathers (who control their allowances), may forbid the love. Other times they may perceive that their loved one has died or is unfaithful and find themselves powerless over their own despair.
They will beat the Zanni as needed, but are fair and proud masters, seeking love at all costs. These characters bring a touch of seriousness and heartfelt drama to the plays, but are naturally funny because of their constant desire to be “too perfect.” They move with an erect posture but the heart thrust forward, always pointing their heart in the direction that they speak. The hips are not thrust forward, but the pelvis is contracted, as if to disguise the fact that they have asses. But these characters should not be taken too lightly. They are prepared and capable of killing or dying if necessary (fortunately, this never becomes necessary) and prone to acting a little too rashly from time to time. They often recite overly dramatic passages or comically bad poetry with impeccable skill. Their names are usually along the lines of, Isabella, Flaminia, Flavio or Leandro. Male innamorati carry a sword, and females often brandish a handkerchief or fan. It is very common for a scenario to feature two sets of crossed lovers who must unravel a comedy of errors in the final act. The innamorati hail from Florence and spoke in the Florentine dialect.
Vecchi (Old Men)-- These characters correspond seasonally to the winter and attempt to stave off death by preventing the spring (the innamorati) from blooming. The vechhi come in two main types, the Magnifico and the Dottore.
Il Magnifico is the miserly, greedy and lecherous Venetian merchant, frequently named Pantalone. His name seems to stem from the phrase pianta leone, meaning to plant the lion, in reference to the many city-states conquered by Venice (the lion was the symbol on the Venetian flag). Pantalone's contradiction is the opposite of the Zanni's: while they have dull wits and agile bodies, il Magnifico has a slow body, but agile mind.
He tyrannizes his housemaid if he has one, with ridiculous demands, both sexually and otherwise. And he will torment his child if he has one, by forbidding his or her love either for financial or sexual reasons. His spinal curvature is the opposite of Zanni, with the pelvis thrust forward and chest caved back. He moves his feet quickly, leading with his hips and walks by lifting the knees very high. Still, he covers ground very slowly. His elbows are always lifted and engaged and fingers are always moving either counting money or hatching a scheme. He is not terribly unlike Mr. Burns from The Simpsons.
He may have a heart attack, but only when it serves his interests, and he'll come to life again the second it becomes profitable to do so. In trying to get up, he is like a turtle on its shell, yet he is quite capable of turning a back flip if finds a coin on the street. In that case, it is not he that turns the back flip (he is quite incapable after all) it is the sheer joy that overtakes him. His mask features wrinkles, warts and a big nose. He spoke in the Venetian dialect.
The Dottore, has a number of names (Balanzone, meaning balance—he can argue both sides of any issue infinitely, or Gratziano, meaning free, because he offers his advice free of charge to anyone who will listen), but is often just called Dottore. He is always fat and usually jolly, but no less greedy than the Magnifico. He wears a mask covering only his forehead and nose, leaving his cheeks exposed and painted red. He is the only character of the Commedia who moves from place to place in a circular fashion and often jumps (and jiggles a bit afterward) to announce his arrival to a certain spot. He leads with his belly thrust forward, causing his spine to form an inverted “C” from shoulders to hips.
He is very gastronomic and believes in a good meal almost as much as he believes in his own intelligence. He hails from Bologna (home of a famous university and famous food) and he is not a medical doctor, but rather an academic or lawyer. This doesn't stop him from offering medical advice, of course. But whether practicing law or medicine, there is no evidence he actually knows what he is talking about. He has the contradiction of being the wise fool, not unlike Owl in Winnie the Pooh. He often speaks a Latin sounding gibberish, ad nauseum ad infinitum etc., to appear smarter. Sometimes il Dottore is played as a blustery old fool, other times as a complete charlatan and quack. A common lazzo of the Doctor is to begin delivering a monologue to the audience and refuse to stop speaking until he is literally dragged, still speaking of course, from the stage by his fellow players.
* * * * *
The gestures, movements, leaps, masks, combat techniques, walks and lazzi of the characters must be seen to be fully learned. Indeed, even then, it could take a lifetime to master a single role.
Hopefully this essay has made clear some of the fundamental principals of this classic art form, and will serve as a step in the right direction in clarifying some of the more common misconceptions. It cannot be said any better than it was said to me by the great Pulcinella descended from a line of great Pulcinellas, il Maestro Antonio Fava. “In Commedia dell’Arte, we study for to make laugh the audience.”
It cannot be said more perfectly than that.
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